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Psychedelic drug Wikipedia

In a subsequent publication, Ettrup et al. examined a series of nine structural congeners of CIMBI-5 to identify one with improved target-to-background binding. Their most promising candidate proved to be Cimbi-36, which was further characterized by Finnema et al. as an improved agonist PET radioligand for in vivo imaging of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors in the nonhuman primate brain. The PFC is the executive area of the brain where incoming sensory information and affective output from the limbic areas converges, creating our sense of awareness of our environment and being involved in higher cognitive functions. The PFC in primates coordinates actions such as complex cognitive and affective functions, with many reciprocal fiber connections from other neocortical areas, as well as with numerous subcortical and limbic structures.

Low doses of 5–75 μg/l LSD in the tank water had no effect on zebrafish behavior, although 100 μg/l produced nonsignificant trends. The higher 250-μg/l concentration, however, had significant effects on nearly all behaviors (e.g., increasing top dwelling and reducing freezing in the novel tank and observation cylinder tests). LSD also evoked mild thigmotaxis in the open field test, increased light behavior in the light/dark test, and reduced the number of arm entries and freezing in the T-maze and social preference tests, without affecting social preference. LSD also significantly increased whole-body cortisol levels in the novel tank, light/dark box, and open field tests. Carter et al. investigated the effects of psilocybin (215 μg/kg, p.o.) on attentional function in eight healthy volunteers using a multiple-object tracking task.

This supersensitivity persisted for up to 6 days after the first DOI injection but decreased over time, so that the HTR response had returned to control levels 8 days after the initial DOI injection. Chronic DOI administration also was examined by giving mice daily injections of 2.5 mg/kg DOI for 13 days. Daily HTR responses to DOI injections were reduced from 24 hours after the first injection, through day 5, when they returned to the value observed on day 1. One of the common subjectively perceived effects of psychedelics is a strongly altered experience of time . For example, one LSD user indicated that he had watched the big bang and the evolution of the universe all in the space of only a few minutes.

Here, Kometer et al. assessed the ability to recognize the emotional state of another person from facial cues. They also quantified response selection and inhibition to emotional cues by behavioral and event-related EEG measurements in an emotional Psychedelics go/no-go task. In this test, 36 black-and-white photographs of the eye region of persons expressing different subtle emotional states were presented on a computer screen along with four words describing the states of the persons.

These investigators proposed that systemic administration of 5-HT2 agonists suppressed LC firing indirectly, through tonic activation of inhibitory GABAergic inputs to the LC. They proposed that the facilitating effect on sensory inputs was mediated through excitatory amino acid receptors in the LC. Finally, in healthy human volunteers, PET has been used to study a possible role for dopamine in the effects of psilocybin. An effective dose of psilocybin, which lacks significant affinity for dopamine receptors, significantly decreased binding of the dopamine D2 antagonist raclopride in both the caudate nucleus and putamen, a finding that would be consistent with an increase in extracellular dopamine (Vollenweider et al., 1999). Anatomic and physiologic data suggest that a likely site for serotonergic modulation of dopaminergic transmission is through direct actions on mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic transmission in the VTA .

To be clear, shamanism includes a number of tricks of the trade such as sleight-of-hand, ventriloquism, surreptitiously using informants to obtain information about the patient, and the prototypical “sucking” cure , which may be construed as involving deceit. However, these activities can be more properly considered as a form of “truthful trickery,” in the sense that they are procedures that engender a sense of mastery on the part of the client (e.g., specific techniques such as ventriloquism are used by shamans to indicate the presence of spirits) (Cardeña and Beard, 1996). Moreover, the use of acting and the employment of illusions (e.g., the use of masks and costumes) intentionally seek to affect the thoughts, feelings, or perceptions of the audience, bringing about emotional arousal and the evocation of faith, hope, and trust that ultimately enhance client expectations .

A review of the use of animal models of serotonergic psychedelics was recently published (Hanks and González-Maeso, 2013). DOI was found to flatten the psychometric function, tending to displace it rightward, and increased the Weber fraction, but only for temporal discrimination. DOI at 0.25 mg produced a significant reduction of %B on temporal discrimination but had no effect on intensity discrimination. The authors present a detailed statistical analysis that included slope ε and Weber fraction, but they conclude that that the impairment of the precision with which the rats discriminated the durations of the stimulus was not due to a general disruption of stimulus control. Their results strongly suggest that DOI has a greater effect on temporal discrimination than on light-intensity discrimination. An electron microscopy immunocytochemical study showed localization of 5-HT2A receptors in both the parabrachial and paranigral regions of the VTA, with label identified primarily as dendrites and unmyelinated axons .

Acoustic startle stimuli were presented through headphones, and the eyeblink component of the ASR was measured with an electromyography startle system. Subjective effects of drug and placebo were assessed using the 5D-ASC, and effects of psilocybin on sustained attention were assessed using the FAIR test. Psilocybin was found to reduce PPI dose-dependently at short (30-millisecond) ISIs, had no effect at medium (60-millisecond) ISIs, and increased PPI at long (120- to 2000-millisecond) ISIs, without affecting startle reactivity or habituation. Psilocybin impaired attentional performance, reducing the FAIR attentional performance capacity score P as well as score Q indexing the number of attentively made decisions relative to the total decisions, and the attentional continuity performance score C.

Psilocybin occasioned mystical experiences produce enduring beneficial changes, such as trait-level increases in prosocial attitudes and behaviors (Griffiths et al., 2018) and in the personality domain of Openness (MacLean et al., 2011). Moreover, both psychedelic mystical experiences and entity encounters have profound and sometimes lasting effects on beliefs and worldviews (Griffiths et al., 2011, 2019; Davis et al., 2020; Lutkajtis, 2020). As well as imaging studies there was also a hugely influential psychopharmacological experiment conducted by Roland Griffiths and his team at John Hopkins university in Baltimore. 21They gave healthy non-psychiatrically ill volunteers a single 25-mg oral dose of psilocybin in a psychotherapeutic setting and followed them up for many years. In contrast to the methylphenidate group who had little in the way of long-term benefits, most of the psilocybin participants found the experience rewarding and insightful and many said it was one of the most significant experiences of their lives, ie, being in the top five of their life-time positive experiences.